SpringerProtocols: Abstract: Clinical, Epidemiological, and Laboratory Aspects of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections

Clinical, Epidemiological, and Laboratory Aspects of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections

By: Elizabeth Palavecino²

Abstract

Full Text

Download PDF (155K)

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major pathogen responsible for both hospital- and community-onset disease. Resistance to methicillin in S. aureus is mediated by PBP2a, a penicillin-binding protein with low affinity to β-lactams, encoded by the mecA gene. Accurate susceptibility testing of S. aureus isolates and screening of patients for colonization with MRSA are important tools to limit the spread of this organism. This review focuses on the clinical significance of MRSA infections and new approaches for the laboratory diagnosis and epidemiological typing of MRSA strains.

Affiliation(s): (2) Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC

Book Title: Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Protocols

Series: Methods in Molecular Biology | Volume: 391 | Pub. Date: Sep-27-2007 | Page Range: 1-19 | DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-468-1_1

Subject: Infectious Diseases

Key Words: Staphylococcus aureus - antimicrobial resistance - methicillin-resistant - Staphylococcus aureus - CA-MRSA - staphylococcal infections - susceptibility testing - molecular typing - virulence

References

Download References

1.	Panlilio, A. L., Culver, D. H., Gaynes, R. P., Banerjee, S., Henderson, S., Tolson, J. S., and Martone, W. J. (1992) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in U.S. hospitals, 1975–1991. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 13, 582–586.

2.	Stefani, S. and Varaldo, P. E. (2003) Epidemiology of methicillin-resistant staphylococci in Europe. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9, 1179–1186.

3.	Kuehnert, M. J., Hill, H. A., Kupronis, B. A., Tokars, J. I., Solomon, S. L., and Jernigan, D. B. (2005) Methicillin-resistant-Staphylococcus aureus hospitalizations, United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 868–872.

4.	Cuevas, O., Cercenado, E., Vindel, A., Guinea, J., Sanchez-Conde, M., Sanchez-Somolinos, M., and Bouza, E. (2004) Evolution of the antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococus spp. in Spain: five nationwide prevalence studies. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48, 4240–4245.

5.	Simor, A. E., Ofner-Agostini, M., Bryce, E., et al. (2001) The evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Canadian hospitals: 5 years of national surveillance. CMAJ 165, 21–26.

6.	Cosgrove, S. E., Qi, Y., Kaye, K. S., Harbarth, S., Karchmer, A. W., and Carmeli, Y. (2005) The impact of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes: mortality, length of stay, and hospital charges. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 26, 166–174.

7.	Abramson, M. A. and Sexton, D. J. (1999) Nosocomial methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococus aureus primary bacteremia: at what costs? Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20, 408–411.

8.	NNIS system. (2004) National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am. J. Infect. Control 32, 470–485.

9.	Wisplinghoff, H., Bischoff, T., Tallent, S. M., Seifert, H., Wenzel, R. P., and Edmond, M. B. (2004) Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 309–317.

10.	Jones, M. E., Draghi, D. C., Thornsberry, C., Karlowsky, J. A., Sahm, D. F., and Wenzel R. P. (2004) Emerging resistance among bacterial pathogens in the intensive care unit—a European and North American Surveillance study (2000–2002). Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 29, 3–14.

11.	Palavecino, E. (2004) Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Clin. Lab. Med. 24, 403–418.

12.	Herold, B. C., Immergluck, L. C., Maranan, M. C., et al. (1998) Communityacquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA 279, 593–598.

13.	Francis, J. S., Doherty, M. C., Lopatin, U., et al. (2005) Severe community-onset pneumonia in healthy adults caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40, 100–107.

14.	Miller, L. G., Perdreau-Remington, F., Rieg, G., et al. (2005) Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1445–1453.

15.	Naimi, T. S., LeDell, K. H., Como-Sabetti, K., et al. (2003) Comparison of community-and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 290, 2976–2984.

16.	Fey, P. D., Said-Salim, B., Rupp, M. E., et al. (2003) Comparative molecular analysis of community-or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47, 196–203.

17.	Mulvey, M. R., MacDougall, L., Cholin, B., Horsman, G., Fidyk, M., Woods, S., and Saskatchewan CA-MRSA Study Group. (2005) Community-associated methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 844–850.

18.	Vandenesch, F., Naimi, T., Enright, M. C., et al. (2003) Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes: worldwide emergence. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 978–984.

19.	Okuma, K., Iwakawa, K., Turnidge, J. D., et al. (2002) Dissemination of new methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones in the community. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40, 4289–4294.

20.	McCormick, J. K., Yarwood, J. M., and Schlievert, P. M. (2001) Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: an update. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 55, 77–104.

21.	Lina, G., Piemont, Y., Godail-Gamot, F., et al. (1999) Involvement of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus in primary skin infections and pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29, 1128–1132.

22.	Said-Salim, B., Mathena, B., Braughton, K., et al. (2005) Differential distribution and expression of Panton-Valentine leucocidin among community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 3373–3379.

23.	Barber, M. (1961) Methicillin-resistant staphylococci. J. Clin. Pathol. 14, 385–393.

24.	McDougal, L. K. and Thornsberry, C. (1986) The role of beta-lactamase in staphylococcal resistance to penicillinase-resistant penicillins and cephalosporins. J. Clin. Microbiol. 23, 832–839.

25.	Tomasz, A., Drugeon, H. B., de Lencastre, H. M., Jabes, D., McDougal, L., and Bille, J. (1989) New mechanism for methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: clinical isolates that lack the PBP 2a gene and contain normal penicillin-binding proteins with modified penicillin-binding capacity. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33, 1869–1874.

26.	Ubukata, K., Yamashita, N., and Konno, M. (1985) Occurrence of a beta-lactam-inducible penicillin-binding protein in methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27, 851–857.

27.	Chambers, H. F. (1997) Methicillin resistance in staphylococci: molecular and biochemical basis and clinical implications. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10, 781–791.

28.	Fasola, E. L. and Peterson, L. R. (1992) Laboratory detection and evaluation of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial infections. In: Weinstein RS, Gram AR (eds). Advances in Pathology, Volume V. Chicago, IL. Mosby-Year Book, Inc. 285–306.

29.	Hiramatsu, K., Cui, L., Kuroda, M., and Ito, T. (2001) The emergence and evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Trends Microbiol. 9, 486–493.

30.	Song, M. D., Wachi, M., Doi, M., Ischino, F., and Matsuhashi, M. (1987) Evolution of an inducible penicillin-target protein in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by gene fusion. FEBS Lett. 221, 167–171.

31.	Katayama, Y., Ito, T., and Hiramatsu, K. (2000) A new class of genetic element, staphylococcus cassette chromosome mec, encodes methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 1549–1555.

32.	Ito, T., Katayama, Y., Asada, K., Mori, N., Tsutsumimoto, K., Tiensasitorn, C., and Hiramatsu, K. (2001) Structural comparison of three types of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec integrated in the chromosome in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45, 1323–1336.

33.	Ito, T., Ma, X. X., Takeuchi, F., Okuma, K., Yuzawa, H., and Hiramatsu, K. (2004) Novel type V staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec driven by a novel cassette chromosome recombinase, ccrC. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48, 2637–2651.

34.	Hiramatsu, K., Hanaki, H., Ino, T., Yabuka, K., Oguri, T., and Tenover, F. C. (1997) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 40, 135, 136.

35.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004) Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: New York 2004. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53, 322, 323.

36.	Tenover, F. C. and McDonald, L. C. (2005) Vancomycin-resistant staphylococci and enterococci: epidemiology and control. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 18, 300–305.

37.	Appelbaum, P. C. and Bozdogan, B. (2004) Vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Lab. Med. 24, 381–402.

38.	Severin, A., Wu, S. W., Tabei, K., and Tomasz, A. (2004) Penicillin-binding protein 2 is essential for expression of high-level vancomycin resistance and cell wall synthesis in vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the enterococcal vanA gene complex. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48, 4566–4573.

39.	Coldren, F. M., Palavecino, E., and Carroll, D. L. (2005) Atomic force microscopy as a potential diagnostic technique in staphylococcal infections. Microsc. Microanal. 11(Suppl. 2), 980, 981.

40.	Touhami, A., Jericho, M. H., and Beveridge, T. J. (2004) Atomic force microscopy of cell growth and division in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 186, 3286–3295.

41.	Tollersrud, T., Berge, T., Andersen, S. R., and Lund, A. (2001) Imaging the surface of Staphylococcus aureus by atomic force microscopy. APMIS 109, 541–545.

42.	Boyle-Vavra, S., Hahm, J., Sibener, S. J., and Daum, R. S. (2000) Structural and topological differences between a glycopeptide-intermediate clinical strain and glycopeptide-susceptible strains of Staphylococcus aureus revealed by atomic force microscopy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 3456–3460.

43.	Crisostomo, M. I., Westh, H., Tomasz, A., Chung, M., Oliveira, D. C., and de Lencastre, H. (2001) The evolution of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: similarity of genetic backgrounds in historically early methicillin-susceptible and-resistant isolates and contemporary epidemic clones. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 9865–9870.

44.	Enright, M. C., Robinson, D. A., Randle, G., Feil, E. J., Grundmann, H., and Spratt, B. G. (2002) The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 7687–7692.

45.	Robinson, D. A. and Enright, M. C. (2003) Evolutionary models of the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47, 3926–3934.

46.	Feil, E. J., Cooper, J. E., Grundmann, H., et al. (2003) How clonal is Staphylococcus aureus? J. Bacteriol. 11, 3307–3316.

47.	Oliveira, D. C., Tomasz, A., and de Lencastre, H. (2002) Secrets of success of a human pathogen: molecular evolution of pandemic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2, 180–189.

48.	Oliveira, D. C., Tomasz, A., and de Lencastre, H. (2001) The evolution of pandemic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: identification of two ancestral genetic backgrounds and the associated mec elements. Microb. Drug Resist. 7, 349–361.

49.	Chambers, H. F. and Hackbarth, C. J. (1987) Effect of NaCl and nafcillin on penicillin-binding protein 2a and heterogeneous expression of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31, 1982–1988.

50.	Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute/NCCLS. (2005) Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing; Fifteenth Informational Supplement. CLSI/NCCLS document M100-S15. CLSI, Wayne, PA.

51.	Swenson, J. M., Tenover, F. C., and Cefoxitin Disk Study Group. (2005) Results of disk diffusion testing with cefoxitin correlate with presence of mecA in Staphylococcus spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 3818–3823.

52.	Yamazumi, T., Furuta, I., Diekema, D. J., Pfaller, M. A., and Jones, R. N. (2001) Comparison of the Vitek gram-positive susceptibility 106 card, the MRSA-Screen latex agglutination test, and mecA analysis for detecting oxacillin resistance in a geographically diverse collection of clinical isolates of coagulase-negative staphylococci. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 3633–3636.

53.	Swenson, J. M., Williams, P. P., Killgore, G., O’Hara, C. M., and Tenover, F. C. (2001) Performance of eight methods, including two new rapid methods, for detection of oxacillin resistance in a challenge set of Staphylococcus aureus organisms. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 3785–3788.

54.	Charles, P. G., Ward, P. B., Johnson, P. D., Howden, B. P., and Grayson, M. L. (2004) Clinical features associated with bacteremia due to heterogeneous vancomycinintermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 448–451.

55.	Howden, B. P., Ward, P. B., Charles, P. G., et al. (2004) Treatment outcomes for serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 521–528.

56.	Paule, S. M., Pasquariello, A. C., Hacek, D. M., Fisher, A. G., Thomson, R. B. Jr., Kaul, K. L., and Peterson, L. R. (2004) Direct detection of Staphylococcus aureus from adult and neonate nasal swab specimens using real-time polymerase chain reaction. J. Mol. Diagn. 6, 191–196.

57.	Warren, D. K., Liao, R. S., Merz, L. R., Eveland, M., and Dunne, W. M. Jr. (2004) Detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus directly from nasal swab specimens by a real-time PCR assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 5578–5581.

58.	Peterson, L. R., Petzel, R. A., Clabots, C. R., Fasching, C. E., and Gerding, D. N. (1993) Medical technologists using molecular epidemiology as part of the infection control team. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16, 303–311.

59.	Tenover, F., Arbeit, R., Goering, R. V., Mickelsen, P. A., Murray, B. E., Persing, D. H., and Swaminathan, B. (1995) Interpreting chromosomal DNA restriction patterns produced by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis: criteria for bacterial strain typing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 2233–2239.

60.	McDougal, L. K., Steward, C. D., Killgore, G. E., Chairtram, S. K., McAllister, S. K., and Tenover, F. C. (2003) Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing of oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from the United States: establishing a national database. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 5113–5120.

61.	Enright, M. C., Day, N. P., Davies, C. E., Peacock, S. J., and Spratt, B. G. (2000) Multilocus sequence typing for characterization of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible clones of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38, 1008–1015.

62.	van Belkum, A., Kluytmans, J., van Leeuwen, W., et al. (1995) Multicenter evaluation of arbitrarily primed PCR for typing of Staphylococcus aureus strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 1537–1547.

63.	Shopsin, B., Gomez, M., Montgomery, S. O., et al. (1999) Evaluation of protein A gene polymorphic region DNA sequencing for typing of Staphylococcus aureus strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37, 3556–3563.

64.	Dunman, P. M., Mounts, W., McAleese, F., et al. (2004) Uses of Staphylococcus aureus GeneChips in genotyping and genetic composition analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 4275–4283.

65.	Siberry, G. K., Tekle, T., Carroll, K., and Dick, J. (2003) Failure of clindamycin treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus expressing inducible clindamycin resistance in vitro. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37, 1257–1260.

66.	Appelbaum, P. C. and Jacobs, M. R. (2005) Recently approved and investigational antibiotics for treatment of severe infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 8, 510–517.

67.	Wilson, P., Andrew, J. A., Charlesworth, R., Walesby, R., Singer, M., Farrell, D. J., and Robbins, M. (2003) Linezolid resistance in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51, 186–188.

68.	Tsiodras, S., Gold, H. S., Sakoulas, G., et al. (2001) Linezolid resistance in a clinical isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 358, 207, 208.

69.	Hirano, L. and Bayer, A. S. (1991) Beta-lactam-beta-lactamase-inhibitor combinations are active in experimental endocarditis caused by b-lactamase-producing oxacillin-resistant staphylococci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35, 685–690.

70.	Cantoni, L., Wenger, A., Glauser, M., and Billie, J. (1989) Comparative efficacy of amoxicillin-clavulanate, cloxacillin, and vancomycin against methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in rats. J. Infect. Dis. 159, 989–993.

71.	Fasola, E. L., Fasching, C. E., and Peterson, L. R. (1995) Molecular correlation between in vitro and in vivo activity of beta-lactam and beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 125, 200–211.

72.	Miller, K., Storey, C., Stubbings, W. J., Hoyle, A. M., Hobbs, J. K., and Chopra, I. (2005) Antistaphylococcal activity of a novel cephalosporin CB-181963 (CAB-175). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55, 579–582.

73.	Entenza, J. M., Hohl, P., Heinze-Krauss, I., Glauser, M. P., and Moreillon, P. (2002) BAL9141, a novel extended-spectrum cephalosporin active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in treatment of experimental endocarditis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 171–177.

74.	Fung-Tomc, J. C., Clark, J., Minassian, B., et al. (2002) In vitro and in vivo activities of a novel cephalosporin, BMS-247243, against methicillin-resistant and-susceptible staphylococci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 971–976.

75.	Chambers, H. F. (2003) Solving staphylococcal resistance to beta-lactams. Trends Microbiol. 11, 145–148.

76.	Katayama, Y., Zhang, H. Z., and Chambers, H. F. (2004) PBP 2a mutations producing very-high-level resistance to beta-lactams. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48, 453–459.

77.	Chambers, H. F. (2005) Evaluation of ceftobiprole in a rabbit model of aortic valve endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant and vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 884–888.

Comments (Loading...)

Post comment/View all comments